Ukulungiswa kwama-electron: ukulandelana kwe-aufbau, umthetho ka-Hund nama-ayoni

Ama-shell, ama-subshell nokuqukatha kwama-orbital

I-electron ngayinye e-athomu ichazwa ngezinombolo ze-quantum ezine. Inombolo eyinhloko ye-quantum n (1, 2, 3, …) isetha i-shell. Inombolo ye-quantum yomfutho ongxenyeni l isuka ku-0 iye ku-n − 1 futhi isetha i-subshell: l = 0, 1, 2 no-3 kubizwa ngokuthi s, p, d no-f. Inombolo ye-quantum kazibuthe mₗ isuka ku-−l iye ku-+l, ngakho i-subshell iqukethe ama-orbital angu-2l + 1. Inombolo ye-quantum ye-spin mₛ ingu-+½ noma −½.

Ngoba i-orbital ngayinye iqukatha ama-electron amabili ngobukhulu, i-subshell ye-s iqukatha angu-2, i-p angu-6, i-d angu-10, ne-f angu-14. I-shell ephelele iqukatha ama-electron angu-2n²: angu-2 ku-n = 1, angu-8 ku-n = 2, nango-18 ku-n = 3. Lokhu kuqukatha yikhona okwenza ama-block ethebula lezikhathi abe banzi ngamakholomu angu-2, 6, 10 no-14.

Ukulandelana kokugcwaliswa kwe-aufbau nethebula lezikhathi

Esimweni esiphansi, ama-electron athatha ama-subshell anamandla aphansi kakhulu atholakalayo; lesi yisimiso se-aufbau. E-athomu elinama-electron amaningi, amandla e-subshell ancike ku-l kanye no-n, ngoba i-electron ye-s ingena eduze nenyukliya kune-electron ye-p noma ye-d ye-n efanayo futhi ivikelwa kancane ngama-electron angaphakathi. Ukulandelana okuvelayo kuma-athomu angathathi hlangothi ngu-1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.

Umthetho we-n + l uphinda lokhu kulandelana: gcwalisa ama-subshell ngokulandelana kokukhula kuka-n + l, futhi lapho ama-subshell amabili alingana, gcwalisa elinokuphansi kuka-n kuqala. Ngakho i-4s (4 + 0 = 4) igcwala ngaphambi kwe-3d (3 + 2 = 5). Ungafunda nokulandelana ethebuleni lezikhathi. Uhamba ngesikhathi, udlula ku-block ye-s, bese kuba ye-f uma ikhona, bese kuba ye-d, bese kuba ye-p, nge-subshell ye-d eyi-shell eyodwa ngemuva kwenombolo yesikhathi neye-f eyi-shell ezimbili ngemuva.

Ukulandelana kukutshela ukuthi yiyiphi i-subshell eyamukela i-electron elandelayo kusuka kusakhi esiya kwesinye. Akusho ukuthi i-4s ihlala iphansi emandleni kune-3d. Uma i-3d isithathiwe, amandla ayo ehlela ngaphansi kwalawo e-4s, yingakho ama-cation ensimbi yokudlula elahlekelwa ama-electron e-4s kuqala.

Isimiso sika-Pauli, umthetho ka-Hund namadayagramu e-orbital

Isimiso sokukhishwa sika-Pauli sithi awekho ama-electron amabili e-athomu abelana ngezinombolo ze-quantum ezine ezifanayo. Ama-electron amabili e-orbital eyodwa asebelana ngo-n, l no-mₗ, ngakho kufanele abe nama-spin aphambene, futhi ayikho i-orbital engaqukatha okwesithathu.

Umthetho ka-Hund usebenza kuma-orbital e-degenerate, anamandla alinganayo ngaphakathi kwe-subshell. Ama-electron awathatha ngamunye, enama-spin ahambisanayo, ngaphambi kokuba kuqale ukubhangqa. Ukubhangqa kukhulisa amandla ngoba ama-electron amabili e-orbital eyodwa aphikisana kakhulu, kanti ama-spin ahambisanayo kuma-orbital ahlukene azuza ukuzinza kokushintshana. I-2p³ ye-nitrogen ngakho inama-electron amathathu angabhangqiwe, futhi i-2p⁴ ye-oxygen inebhangqa elilodwa nama-electron amabili angabhangqiwe.

Kudayagramu ye-orbital, dweba ibhokisi elilodwa ku-orbital ngayinye, gcwalisa ama-subshell ngokulandelana kwe-aufbau, bese ngaphakathi kwe-subshell ubeka umcibisholo owodwa ebhokisini ngalinye ngaphambi kokwengeza owesibili. Ama-athomu anama-electron angabhangqiwe ayi-paramagnetic futhi adonselwa enkundleni kazibuthe; ama-athomu anama-electron wonke abhangqiwe ayi-diamagnetic.

Izibonelo ezisebenzile: i-selenium ne-zirconium

Isibonelo 1: i-selenium, Z = 34. Gcwalisa ngokulandelana kwe-aufbau kuze kubekwe ama-electron angu-34: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁴. Hlola isamba: 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 10 + 4 = 34. Ekubhaleni kwegesi ephakeme, shintsha ama-electron okuqala angu-18 ngo-[Ar], igesi ephakeme eqeda isikhathi sangaphambilini: [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p⁴. Ukubhala ama-subshell ngenombolo ye-shell, njengalapha, kuyisivumelwano esivamile; [Ar] 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁴ ichaza ukulungiswa okufanayo ngokulandelana kokugcwaliswa.

Ama-electron amane e-4p e-selenium asatshalaliswa phezu kwama-orbital amathathu. Umthetho ka-Hund ubeka eyodwa ngayinye ubhangqe eyesine, ushiye ama-electron amabili angabhangqiwe. Ama-electron ayo e-valence ayisithupha, 4s² 4p⁴, ahambisana nephethini yangaphandle ye-oxygen ne-sulfur eqenjini 16, yingakho i-selenium yakha i-ayoni ye-selenide, Se²⁻, i-isoelectronic ne-krypton.

Isibonelo 2: i-zirconium, Z = 40. Ngemva kwe-[Kr], echaza ama-electron angu-36, asala amane. Ama-subshell alandelayo yi-5s bese kuba yi-4d, okunikeza u-[Kr] 4d² 5s², okuvumelana nedatha yesimo esiphansi ye-NIST. Ama-electron amabili e-4d athatha ama-orbital ahlukene enama-spin ahambisanayo, ngakho i-zirconium inama-electron amabili angabhangqiwe.

I-chromium, i-copper nokuhlukile okumelana nemithetho elula

Ukulandelana kwe-aufbau kubikezela u-[Ar] 3d⁴ 4s² we-chromium no-[Ar] 3d⁹ 4s² we-copper. I-spectroscopy ikhombisa u-[Ar] 3d⁵ 4s¹ no-[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s¹. Ngoba i-4s ne-3d zisondelene emandleni kulawa ma-athomu, ukuhambisa i-electron eyodwa ku-3d kuncipha amandla alonke, kusizwa ukuzinza kokushintshana kwe-subshell ye-d egcwele ingxenye noma ephelele. I-molybdenum, [Kr] 4d⁵ 5s¹, ne-silver, [Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s¹, zilandela iphethini efanayo nezakhi ezingenhla kwazo.

Incazelo ye-subshell egcwele ingxenye ayiwona umthetho jikelele. I-niobium ingu-[Kr] 4d⁴ 5s¹ nakuba i-subshell yayo ye-4d iphela ingagcwele ingxenye noma ngokuphelele; i-palladium ingu-[Kr] 4d¹⁰ ngaphandle kwama-electron e-5s; ne-tungsten, ngqo ngaphansi kwe-molybdenum, ingu-[Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d⁴ 6s². Funda okuhlukile okudingwa yisifundo sakho kudatha kunokuba ukukususe emthethweni ongasebenzi ngokujwayelekile.

Ukulungiswa kwama-ayoni anama-athomu ayodwa

Ku-anion, engeza ama-electron ku-subshell elandelayo etholakalayo: i-chlorine, [Ne] 3s² 3p⁵, iba ngu-Cl⁻, [Ne] 3s² 3p⁶, i-isoelectronic ne-argon. Ku-cation, susa ama-electron ku-subshell enokuphakeme kuka-n kuqala, futhi ngaphakathi kwaleyo shell kusuka ku-p ngaphambi kwe-s. Ensimbi yokudlula yomugqa wokuqala, lokho kuthatha ama-electron e-4s ngaphambi kwanoma yiziphi ze-3d.

Isibonelo 3: ama-ayoni e-iron. I-iron ingu-[Ar] 3d⁶ 4s². U-Fe²⁺ ulahlekelwa ama-electron womabili e-4s anikeze u-[Ar] 3d⁶, no-Fe³⁺ ulahlekelwa enye, evela ku-3d, anikeze u-[Ar] 3d⁵. Hlola ukubala: i-iron inama-electron angu-26, u-Fe²⁺ unawo angu-18 + 6 = 24, no-Fe³⁺ unawo angu-18 + 5 = 23. I-ayoni ekhululekile u-Fe³⁺ inama-electron amahlanu angabhangqiwe, eyodwa ku-orbital ye-3d ngayinye.

Umqondo ofanayo usebenza ku-block ye-p. I-tin ingu-[Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s² 5p², no-Sn²⁺ ulahlekelwa ama-electron akhe amabili e-5p abe ngu-[Kr] 4d¹⁰ 5s². I-copper(I) ingu-[Ar] 3d¹⁰, ngoba i-electron eyodwa ye-4s ye-copper ihamba kuqala.

Amaphutha avamile lapho kubhalwa ukulungiswa

Amaphutha amaningi okulungiswa awela emaphethini ambalwa, futhi ngalinye lingabanjwa ngokuhlola okusheshayo ngaphambi kokuthi uqhubeke.

Lapho umbuzo ucela ama-electron angabhangqiwe, dweba idayagramu ye-orbital ye-subshell egcwele ingxenye esikhundleni sokwahlulela ngochungechunge lokulungiswa. Lapho ubuza nge-ayoni, bhala i-athomu elingathathi hlangothi kuqala, bese wengeza noma ususa ama-electron.

• Ukususa ama-electron e-3d ngaphambi kwe-4s: u-Fe²⁺ ungu-[Ar] 3d⁶, hhayi u-[Ar] 3d⁴ 4s². Ama-cation avamile omugqa wokuqala afana no-Fe²⁺, Co²⁺ no-Cu⁺ awanawo ama-electron e-4s.
• Ukusebenzisa umongo wegesi ephakeme ongalungile: umongo uyigesi ephakeme evela esikhathini sangaphambilini, [Ar] kuzakhi ezingu-19 kuya ku-36.
• Ukubala kabi ama-electron: izinombolo ezingaphezulu kufanele zihlangane zibe ngu-Z e-athomu futhi zibe ngu-Z ukuthatha ishaji e-ayoni.
• Ukugcwalisa ngokweqile i-subshell, njengo-2p⁷ noma 3d¹¹.
• Ukubhangqa ama-electron e-subshell ye-p noma ye-d ngaphambi kokuthi i-orbital ngayinye ibe neyodwa.
• Ukubeka i-block ye-d e-shell engalungile: isikhathi 4 sigcwalisa i-3d, hhayi i-4d.
• Ukusebenzisa iphethini ye-Cr ne-Cu kuzo zonke izakhi ezingaphansi kwazo ngaphandle kokuhlola idatha.